wenty years ago, microwave semiconductor industry subsequently over wo

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wenty years ago, microwave semiconductor industry subsequently over wo

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wenty years ago, microwave semiconductor industry subsequently over world boost from Defense Advanced Research Procurement Activity, DARPA's $600 MIMIC (Microwave Millimeter-wave Monolithic Integrated Circuits) program. Driven emphasis production discipline, established through volume production, industry transformed itself from supplier specialty diodes transistors into reliable supplier microwave monolithic integrated circuits (MMIC). Gallium arsenide (GaAs) microwave material choice, clearly superior silicon microwave applications higher electron mobility semi-insulating nature. Significant reviews development this technology have been published, providing comprehensive overviews technology development from days molecular electronics creation fully monolithic devices.1,2 Although many expectations technical dominance business riches GaAsbased semiconductors have materialized, this technology enabled introduction many breakthrough products that last years have changed that live. GaAs transmit/receive (T/R) modules longrange active array radars warn troops incoming threats from missiles projectiles. GaAs noise amplifiers (LNA) direct broadcast satellite receivers cable
modems allow watch favorite games wherever they take place. GaAs power amplifiers (PA) switches cellular phones connect wirelessly families work. computers constantly connected world. Whether offices coffee shop, have constant network access. semiconductors have enabled development disruptive technologies that impact facets lives. This article will focus some major milestones that drove technical capability cost semiconductors, enabling this world become reality. beginning 1980s, potential monolithic integration microwave functions semi-insulating GaAs been well recognized. Impressive demonstrations capability MMIC technology were widely reported.3 Although semiconductor fabrication discipline established silicon technology, this discipline slow adopt GaAs processing. strong commercial pull silicon-based integrated circuits drove wafer volume, which turn drove production discipline learning. Wafer diameters, silicon production, progressed from three inch driven ever-increasing fabrication (FAB) volume.
J.P. LANTERI D.J. CARLSON
M/A-COM Inc. Lowell,
Reprinted with permission MICROWAVE JOURNAL® from June 2006 issue. 2006 Horizon House Publications, Inc.
OVER EATURE
GaAs-based technologies, material inches diameter. debate raging advantages implantation versus epitaxy active layer formation. Processing dominated hand dipping magic solutions chemical benches. Process control monitors (PCM), element control silicon, were rarely applied. Test challenging; instrumentation primitive, methods manual calibration procedures been standardized. Gate lengths were much shorter than silicon, resulting significant lithography challenges, transistor density applications very low, MMICs were very large. DARPA Manufacturing discipline GaAs fabrication received first major push from from digital world. 1982 DARPA initiated Advanced On-Board Signal Processing (AOSP)4 program focused high speed digital processing using GaAs. This program based assumptions that state-of-the-art GaAs semi-insulating substrate material adequate some types digital very large scale integration (VLSI) circuits; yield GaAs circuits primarily driven random processing defects, lack reproducibility device parameters; strict process control, practiced silicon-based VLSI manufacturing, would result achieving comparable `learning curve' type yield improvements; minimum wafers/week throughput necessary achieve pilot manufacturing discipline.4 Pilot lines were established several companies, many which were applying GaAs technology both digital applications. program, first time, began drive significant wafer volumes through GaAs processing lines. Following closely heels DARPA's digital GaAs effort, DARPA launched MIMIC program with this objective: "Provide needed microwave millimeter-wave products price that will allow their fielded Department Defense systems, that meet required electrical, mechanical, environmental parameters, that continue operate reliably time necessary fulfill their intended application."5 MIMIC program, building upon issues identified AOSP, recognized that there were many areas that required attention achieve program goals. aspects MMIC fabrication, from materials, device processing, test, design needed addressed. MIMIC program structured multiphase effort: Phase definition phase (1987); Phase first hardware development phase (1988); Phase second hardware development phase (1991); Phase focusing critical technology development. This comprehensive program, effort drive down cost MMIC production facilitate their systems, addressed: high cost starting materials; poor production control active layer formation implantation epitaxial growth; lack comprehensive computer-aided-design systems with appropriate circuit models; lack adequate production capabilities; absence databases that could link design processing parameters with test results; inadequate expensive MMIC packaging; high cost test. achieve these goals, challenges were overcome number technical fronts. Process control monitors were introduced across FABs participating MIMIC program. adoption PCMs required development rapid on-wafer test. Statistical process control (SPC) terms that very familiar today, were very seldom present thinking GaAs FABs 1980 1985. Charts were generated, more show that number wafers processed were 100s, rather than applying results process improvement control. ability generate test data outstripped engineers' ability read charts, understand their significance take specific action. First, clear correlations established though they were well hidden variations process, test design. Ultimately, characterization every wafer resulted several benefits: controls based could place leading more consistent process performance; correlations between DC/RF parameters process parameters could established based meaningful statistics; statistically valid device models could developed used basis MMIC systems; first-pass design success became realistic possibility.5 simple introduction utilization meaningful structures, wafer, directed industry path toward increased process control, improved device understanding, higher production yields ultimately lower production costs. ability test full MMICs wafer element learning process. most challenging areas development on-wafer power amplifier testing. Under DARPA MIMIC Phase program, developed pulsed power on-wafer test (see Figure This capability revolutionized power MMIC testing allowing gain meaningful amplifier data without going through expense difficulty assembly prior characterization. development this test technology last requirements accomplish knowngood-die (KGD) testing phasedarray radar module assembly. Over course MIMIC program, production cost dropped from $20/mm under $10/mm2 Phase under $1/mm2 Phase Today's high volume commercial production MMICs achieve cost order $0.10/mm2. MIMIC programs focus manufacturing coupled with dual-use technology policy placed MMIC manufacturers dominant market position. program's legacy persists today.
Fig.
On-wafer pulsed-power test system developed under MIMIC Phase III.
OVER EATURE
(pulsed power) (see Figure on-wafer test equipment allowed rapid, automated test multiple parts. This known-good-die approach credited major factors success program. Most foundries were pursuing dual-use strategy fill their GaAs capacity. While defense insertions were critical driving both technology manufacturing capability, true high volume found commercial market place. first major volume drive from commercial arena came from emerging wireless communications market. GaAs MMIC switches, relatively simple product, proved ideal solution wireless handset. These switches were available SOIC-8 packages performance cost expectations market. This market opportunity drove number MMICs delivered year from tens thousands millions.8 Moving from military market, which state-of-the-art device performance characterization paramount, commercial market, which predictable, repeatable performance considered given cost primary product differentiator, required level manufacturing discipline. found that product test major cost driver.9 Driving down cost test required more sophisticated understanding device performance, allowing correlations established between various device parameters, enabling reduction number parameters tested assure performance. focus hardware software further required reduce test time. Gravity auto-handlers coupled with robust test interface boards were implemented achieve rapid part insertion accurate measurement (see Figure Efficient flow data from test systems also critical improving throughput. Test times were reduced from seconds device close second device. These improvements drove down test cost enabled high volume production. addition GaAs MMIC switches handset applications, wireless market drove need high power switches base stations (see
Fig.
Reliability test fixture COBRA assembly (each fixture contained carrier assemblies).
Fig.
COBRA HPAs carriers fixtured test using on-wafer pulsed test equipment.
Fig.
COBRA program dual HPAs mounted carrier facilitate test burn
Fig.
Fixtured MMICs being into on-wafer test stand.
PRODUCTION While MIMIC program essential establishing foundation MMIC manufacturing, volume production truly drove technology forward. first high volume insertions MMIC technology were defense applications. HARM (High Speed Anti-Radiation Missile) COBRA (Counter Battery Radar) were first MMIC insertions that benefited from MIMIC program. case COBRA, system C-band phased-array radar that initially developed General Electric Electronics Syracuse, later produced Moorestown, module contained GaAs-based MMICs: driver, combined high power amplifiers, phase shifter, variable gain amplifier noise amplifier. program required delivery 25,000 chip sets very strict specifications. Given maturity technology, known-gooddie module assembly essential achieve practical yields module assembly level. Production drove learning. Issues from MMIC design, fabrication, test, burn-in, assembly benefited from demands production.7 Visual inspection raised significant issues overcome. standards,
derived from silicon industry, were being applied. There statistically validated correlation between visual inspection defects reliability. 1000X, micron less gate, covered layers silicon nitride, difficult optical microscope. Inspection yields were operator dependant decreased function repeat inspections. correlation found between many visual yield defects yields burn-in and/or life test. Production MMICs were subjected extensive reliability testing effort seek correlations between process inspection data long-term device performance (see Figure hundred percent electrical test also critical area focus. assure high module yield, MMICs were mounted carriers which included decoupling networks, bias networks stabilization networks facilitate percent test and, case driver, burn-in. test achieved fixturing MMICs, carrier, multi-up format (see Figures multi-up format allowed highly automated testing large number assemblies. were then probed using testing capability established MIMIC Phase Phase
OVER EATURE
Figure Initial products, assembled traditional metal ceramic packages, were amenable cost, high volume assembly test. Evolution base station technology demand more complex switching functions drove more sophisticated solutions. Multi-chip modules switch matrices drove adoption assembly packaging technology leading costeffective solutions. Figure shows multi-chip switch matrix module containing single-pole fourthrow switches, switch drivers power dividers, encapsulated epoxy. production capability demonstrated switches wireless base stations handsets used springboard begin address multifunction high volume. defense applications, significant integration GaAs been demonstrated (see Figure form complete transmit/receive functions C-band radar single chip. Commercial pull came from evolution wireless market. high performance RFIC chip developed Japanese Handy Phone System (PHS) GHz.10 This work represented most highly integrated chip application allowing portion phone realized with less board space facilitating smaller phone size. became clear that enter high volume market, GaAs transceiver must sold less than only this cost target could focus minimizing total area die. need compaction drove more efforts electromagnetic (EM) simulation tricks reduce coupling between adjacent design elements. transceiver mm2, realized ion-implanted process, encompassing LNA, mixer, switch, amp, ampliTransmit Efficiency -35% Gain 5-Bit Analog Phase Shifter
Fig.
Gravity-fed auto-handler used initial high volume switch production.
fier mixer, amplifier step attenuator functions. output consisted driver amplifier, power amplifier switch realized mm2. Similar parts, designed team leading experts field with defense orientation, achieved similar results GaAs, result which match target market. two-chip solution plastic packaged shrink small outline packages (SSOP) allowing standard pick place machines used mass production. packaged parts were assembled with standard wire bonding transfer molding techniques with total cost tens cents. standard plastic packaging enabled adoption mainstream, silicon autohandlers used perform functional testing. total volume GaAs RFICs grown point that dedicated handlers test systems were becoming available. Further evolution wireless communications market highly integrated MMIC up-converters/drivers cellular CDMA handsets. This solution consisted multifunction that operate (cellular) 1900 (PCS) frequency bands. Volume continued grow wireless industry expanded. During this time period, market also beginning accept
Receive Noise Figure Gain Intercept Point
Digital Translator
Fig.
Metal ceramic-packaged high power GaAs MMIC switch with driver base station applications.
Driver Drain Switch Analog Attn Range
High Power Switch/Limiter
LNA/Analog Attn Range Bias Resistor Chain Selectable Bias Pads
Power Active Bias
Digital Interface Logic Step Attn In/Out
Fig.
Multi-chip module switch matrix base station applications sixlevel board.
Fig.
C-band module chip realized MSAGprocess.
OVER EATURE
GaAs heterojunction bipolar transistor (HBT) viable solution output power amplifier handheld wireless applications. Offering distinct advantages over silicon efficiency, gain linearity, HBTs have become technology choice this function. GaAs-based D-mode MESFETs pHEMTs, both contenders socket, lost market share negative gate voltage, which required DC-DC converter, thus increasing cost. While Emode devices were possible solution, they were generally found difficult manufacture. Wireless communications, largest consumer electronics market,12 driven volume applications GaAsbased RFICs. This commercial pull resulted improvement processes, design, test packaging. INTEGRATION, SCALING IMPACT SILICON drive reduce cost increase functionality mandates greater greater integration. case wireless handset, front-end modules (FEM) have been adopted integration path. Clearly, advantage gained from merely moving components from board" inside package.13 What limiting integration, cost-effective manner, large number components realized disparate technologies. Alternate technologies must adopted some functions such filtering passive components. Scaling, driver silicon industry over years, does really exist semiconductor technologies. Although gate lengths reduced achieve higher frequency performance, channel-to-channel pitch does reduce much. This thermal dissipation considerations much fabrication tool being used. Power devices limited more substrate thickness then critical dimension transistor. material used fabrication essentially fixed: GaAs substrate, Si3N4 dielectric gold interconnects; therefore, inductor capacitor sizes remain fairly constant. Three-dimensional integration passive components through multiple metal layers possibility; implementation this concept GaAs been slow limited numbers metal layers absences planarization compared silicon processing. capability adding SiGe epitaxial layers standard CMOS BiCMOS process that high speed HBTs integrated with conventional circuits revolutionized course microwave circuit design over past years. ability have denser functionality, better control over system partitioning between digital domains, coupled with economies scale portability that conventional silicon fabrication offers, makes extending design both analog mixed-signal microwave millimeter-wave frequencies obvious area exploit. SiGe offer opportunity provide very cost microwave millimeter-wave solutions with potential integrate digital control functions together with This results great flexibility system design partitioning. SiGe magic bullet semiconductors; there number performance limitations where inferior traditional III-V semiconductors. particular, power output noise figure critical areas concern. Silicon-based technologies offer significant benefit terms integration cost applications which technical performance appropriate. System-on-a-chip (SoC) solutions based silicon technologies emerging many applications. lower frequencies lower power levels, integration silicon natural approach. example, solutions Bluetooth14 have been introduced which realize full front end, baseband processor, microprocessor, memory functions 0.25 silicon CMOS technology. Integration resulting silicon solutions consuming more more functions that been domain GaAs. functions with exception switch main components FEM, being integrated into silicon. silicon CMOS technology continues scale shorter shorter critical dimensions, higher frequency applications become within reach mainstream silicon processing technology.15 Single chip solutions WLAN HIPERLAN systems available. Through SiGe technology, millimeter-wave regime become accessible silicon technologies. Short-range, ultrawideband radar sensors automotive market excellent example potential SiGe technology facilitate integration millimeter-wave digital functions create highly integrated, compact, cost-effective solution very high volume commercial application.16 short-range radar operates band, domain typically addressed with III-V solutions. Realized transmit receive SiGe solution cost (quad flat-pack noleads) plastic packaging provide full front-end functionality radar system. receiver chip includes LNAs, switch, mixers, variable gain amplifiers integrators. receiver (maximum) conversion gain with (including plastic package) noise figure GHz. IMPLICATIONS FUTURE field semiconductors flourishing. major commercial market driver, wireless communications, become ubiquitous. industry expecting pass landmark billion handsets manufactured year. communicate wirelessly, computers communicate wirelessly soon many appliances within homes will communicate wirelessly. Defense applications remain demanding; hand very large aperture phasedarray radars driving unique requirements very power consumption very cost, other hand desire look farther with greater resolution driving need ever-increasing power output bandwidth. pronounced difference volume between commercial defense markets has, certain extent, driven bifurcation semiconductor industry. More more, companies that have focused commercial marketplace have done exclusion traditional defense business; while many FABs that benefited from early push MIMIC program have
OVER EATURE
ther exited market turned primarily captive nature. facilities continue aggressively pursue dual-use product strategy. volume disparity between those FABs focused commercial production those focused defense production very wide. cycles learning with commensurate improvements performance, yield cost will favor those addressing higher volume applications. Silicon CMOS SiGe technologies addressing many applications that were viewed owned GaAs only years ago. Advanced electromagnetic modeling, multi-layer interconnects short gate length active devices enable digital integration unprecedented level. silicon content devices will only grow with time while GaAs works maintain grip power high frequency applications. Total semiconductor sales 2005 were order $225 which GaAs MMIC devices represented less than Silicon processed over billion square inches material, while GaAs industry consumed million square inches. GaAs semiconductor technology clearly niche broader semiconductor market. GaAs niche must look silicon adopt their best practices learn. semiconductor technologies emerging: address high power applications; antimonide-based materials address very voltage applications. Significant government funding helped move these technologies forward; impressive results have been achieved. Will development time-line mirror that GaAs? there significant applications horizon that will drive learning required mature these technologies? Delivering high volume specification-compliant repeatable time drove maturation GaAs MMIC technology. Real demand drove learning progress aspects design manufacturing process. Each major cycle learning resulted major step forward terms product capability cost. continuation this drive will bring semiconductors into applications that have dreamt. References
Sobol Tomiyasu, "Milestones Microwaves," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, MTT-50, March 2002, 594. McQuiddy, Wassel, J.B. Lagrange Wisseman, "Monolithic Microwave Integrated Circuits: Historical Perspective," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, MTT-32, September 1984, 997. Howe, "Microwave Integrated Circuits Historical Perspective," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, MTT-32, September 1984, 991. Roosild Firstenberg, GaAs Integrated Circuits Design Technology, Mun, Ed., Professional Books, 1988, 450. Cohen, "MIMIC from Department Defense Perspective," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, MTT-38, September 1990, 1171. Pittman, "Evolution Microwave Millimeter-wave Monolithic Program," IEEE Technology Society Magazine, Spring 2003, Kole Ozga, "COBRA Lessons Learned," IEEE MTT-S Digest, 1994, 1423. Bacon, Mahon, Fryklund Zampardi, "Semiconductor Trends Wireless Handsets," Microwave Journal, Vol. June 2005, Ersland, Cousineau, Mahon J.P. Lanteri, "Manufacturing Test Technologies Commercial RF/Microwave Integrated Circuits," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, 1995, McGrath, Jackson, Heaney, Douglas, Fahey, Pratt Begnoche, GaAs Chip Personal Handyphone System," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, MTT-43, July 1995, 1733. Harrington, McNamara, Murphy, Khabbaz, Hafizi, Ali, Wakeman Moazzam, "Highly Integrated MMIC Up-converters/Drivers Cellular CDMA Handsets," IEEE. Neal, "The Semiconductor Evolution: From Single Components Systems Solutions," Microwave Journal, Vol. February 2005, Jos, "Technology Developments Driving Evolution Cellular Phone Power Amplifiers Integrated Front-end Modules," IEEE Journal Solid-State Circuits, September 2001, 1382. Eynde, Schmit, Charlier, Alexandre, Sturman, Coffin, Mollekens, Craninckx, Terrijn, Monterastelli, Beerens, Goetschalckx, Ingels, Joos, Guncer Pontioglu, Fullyintegrated Single-chip Bluetooth," Solid State Circuits Conference, 2001, 196. Wong, "CMOS Integrated Circuits Beyond," Proceedings IEEE, October 2000, 1560. Gresham, Jenkins, Egri, Eswarappa, Kinayman, Jain, Anderson, Kolak, Wohlert, Bawell, Bennett J.P. Lanteri, "Ultrawideband Radar Sensors Short-range Vehicular Applications," IEEE Transactions Microwave Theory Techniques, MTT-52, September 2004, 2105. Jean-Pierre Lanteri holds degree electronics degree semiconductor electronics. been with M/A-COM over years. presently vice president technical director M/A-COM's Strategic group, with primary research interests packaging silicon-based system-on-chip (SoC) design MW/mmW applications, such automotive radar transceivers, military radar transceivers, baseband power amplifier linearization broadband antennas. personal focus expertise cost packaging MW/mmW modules broadband circuits plastic leadframes laminate BGAs. presently oversees AFRL panel antenna program space applications. years principal investigator DARPA/AFRL MAFET module program with chip-on-board components. extensive experience MMIC fabrication, test assembly, having on-wafer test activities DARPA's MIMIC program pioneered on-wafer pulse power test MMIC extensively used modules. Later established automated assembly test facilities producing subassemblies COBRA radars, cruise control sensors large volume commercial RFICs. Douglas Carlson received Sc.B degree electronic materials from Brown University 1983 Sc.D degree electronic materials from Massachusetts Institute Technology 1989. chief technology officer M/A-COM's Integrated Products Business Unit. been employed M/A-COM over years working various engineering management positions involving GaAs materials devices. been involved compound semiconductor research production over years.

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